Ethiopia is believed to have the largest livestock population in Africa. This livestock sector has been contributing a considerable portion to the economy of the country. The livestock population of Ethiopia is estimated to be 70 million cattle, 42.9 million sheep, 52.5 million goats, 8.1 million camels, 13.33 million equines, and 57 million chickens. Of the total livestock population of the county, 34.4% are males and 65.5% are females [1]. Parasitic diseases are a global problem and are considered a major constraint in weight gain, health, and product performance of livestock. They cause lowered productivity and high economic losses affecting the income of small holder farming communities. These effects are varied and more pronounced [2], in Sub-Saharan Africa in general [3].

Common abdominal parasites of livestock are coccidia species of phylum protozoa. Trematodes belong to flukes, nematodes commonly called roundworms, cestodes famous on tapeworms, while the most abundant nematodes in small ruminants are Tricho Strongyloides their prevalence are worldwide [4], causing significant morbidity and loss of production. Helminthic infections can be treated by anthelmintic chemotherapy, however, treatment is costly and drug resistance has evolved in all major parasite species [5]. All over the world, the development of anthelminthic resistance against anthelmintic classes such as benzimidazoles and macrocyclic lactones has been reported. In the United States of America, Brazil, Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and Europe, anthelmintic efficacy studies have been performed and gastrointestinal nematodes-resistant strains have been found [6].

As a result of drug efficacy can be negatively affected by many factors such as underdosing, resistance arising from the exclusive use of drugs of the same mode of action for long periods of time, the use of substandard quality drugs, and inappropriate use of anthelmintics. Misuse and smuggling of anthelmintics in many forms, such as illegal trading in open markets and irrational administration, are widespread in Ethiopia due to an absence of a rational policy for anthelminthic use [7]. There is greater variation in the prevalence and geographical distribution of helminth infection in small ruminants in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Helminths generally spend part of their life cycle outside their definitive host (such as sheep and goats), either on the ground, on grass, or within invertebrates such as snails, insects, or earthworms. Temperature, rainfall, and type of soil determine the occurrence of a given species [8]. These animals are much prone to parasitic infection where their gastrointestinal tract (GIT) harbors a wide variety of parasites like helminths and protozoa which causes clinical and subclinical parasitism [9]. These parasites adversely affect the health status of animals and cause enormous economic losses to the livestock industry [10].

It has always been a major impediment in small ruminant production and this problem is severe in tropical and sub-tropical climates due to favorable ecological factors available for transmission of helminth parasites [11], because helminths are the most important Gastrointestinal tract parasites that affect the growth as well as production of the animals [12]. Helminth parasites of small ruminants are ubiquitous in all agroclimatic zones of Ethiopia with prevailing weather condition that favors their survival and development; their presence doesn’t mean that they cause overt disease [13]. In Ethiopia, 5–7 million sheep and goats die each year due to diseases including helminths infections. More significant, however, are losses resulting from inferior weight gains, condemnation of organs and carcasses, and lower milk yields. The overall economic loss to the Ethiopian meat industry due to parasitic diseases is estimated at 400 million U.S. dollars annually [12].

If the helminths are not controlled and eliminated, the infection eventually lead to the increase of morbidity, mortality, and economic losses [14]. In addition to gastrointestinal nematodes, coccidiosis (especially Eimeria species) has also been known to infect livestock having moderate to high pathogenic effects. However, coinfection with other trichostrongyle nematodes is making diagnosis of clinical coccidiosis difficult [15]. Eimeria is a genus of coccidia that is transmitted mainly by fecal contamination of food and water. These organisms are intracellular parasites and destroy their host cells [16]. Coccidian parasites contribute to enteric disease, particularly in young or goats under stress in poor farm conditions, which lead to a high mortality rate among goat kids [17].

According to Velusamy [18], revealed that the seasonal prevalence of intestinal parasites was highest in the rainy season, followed by moderate in winter, and least in summer in both the sheep and goats whereas the hemoprotozoan parasites recorded were highest in summer, followed by winter and least with rainy season. Due to very conducive environmental conditions for parasite transmission, inadequate nourishment for the host animal, and unsanitary conditions in animal housing facilities, the issue is more acute in tropical nations [19].

In the tropics the warm and humid climatic conditions, the region provides favorable environment for the development of worm eggs to infective larvae, thus apart from nutritional problems helminthosis is a limiting factor in the improvement of livestock due to production losses, increased cost of management and treatment and even mortality in severe cases [20]. As a result, diseases caused by Gastrointestinal tract parasites remain one of the major impediments to small ruminant production in tropics [21]. Prevalence of gastrointestinal helminths has been reported ranging from 0.72% to 84.1% in domestic animals from various parts of the world [22]. In Eastern Ethiopia, livestock production is mainly pastoral where communities are entirely dependent on communal pasture and animal exposure to infective larval stages of parasite continues throughout the year [13].

Accordingly WHO [23] report revealed the most common helminthiases in humans are those caused by infection with the soil-transmitted helminthiasis causing ascariasis, trichuriasis, and hookworm infection (necatoriasis, ancylostomiasis), followed by schistosomiasis and the collective burden of the common helminth diseases rivals that of the main high-mortality conditions around 85% of the neglected tropical disease. The burden for the poorest 500 million people in sub-Saharan Africa is largely due to helminth infections.

When compared the Gastrointestinal tract prevalence of the study areas with other current findings of our country and Sub-Saharan Africa Country (79.68% in both species fairly in line) [24] and higher than (74.41% in both species) [25]; (51.3% in both species) [26]; (52.34% in both species) [27] and (63.6% in both species) [21] results from different parts of Ethiopia and lower than (84.16% in both species) [28]; (86% in both species) [29] and (89.5% in both species) [30] and higher than (51% in both species) [31] results from different Sub-Saharan Africa Country.

However, helminth control strategies for one geo-climatic region and farming systems may not be necessarily appropriate for all farming systems and agroecological zones due to differences in climatic and management factors [8]. Contrarily, Ethiopia, in particular, is a result of a wider range of agroecological factors which are fitting for diversified hosts and parasite species [32]. A community-based approach to Gastrointestinal tract parasite control interventions is therefore key to long-term sustainable outcomes. Because the parasites live in the intestinal tracts of their hosts, their eggs can be found in the feces of the animals. In a communal animal management system where animals graze in the same areas and share watering holes, transmission can occur easily when sheep and goats ingest grass areas where larvae from the hatched eggs are present [33].

The severity of gastrointestinal tract parasites depends on the number of worms, genera, species, and environmental factors, with pathogenicity influenced by predilection sites and widespread distribution. The study in East Hararghe Zone, particularly Melka Belo Woreda, has not previously investigated the association between animal variables and gastrointestinal tract parasite prevalence in small ruminants. Gastrointestinal tract parasites negatively impact production, productivity, and life, especially in low-income countries lacking hygiene considerations. Hence, there is no information or reports about the prevalence of gastrointestinal tract parasites of small ruminants in the study area.

East hararghe zone is located in the eastern part of Ethiopia. The study will be conducted in the Oromia regional state in Jaja district and peasant association (PA) that serviced on Jaja veterinary clinic from May 2023 to August 2023. Jaja is located 558 km east of the capital city Addis Ababa and 142 km south of Dire Dawa in the Ethiopian highland, mid-highland, and lowland. The area is located at 9.077865° latitude and 41.367545° longitude with an altitude of 1626.03 m above sea level. The climate is warm and temperate in Jaja. There is 41% kola, 39% woyna dega and 20% dega agroecology with a temperature range of 14°C–35°C. The relative humidity of Jaja town ranges from 40% to 87% according to data recorded in Melka Belo Woreda Earth Office shows.

In Melka Belo Woreda, there are about 200,747 cattle, 38,322 sheep, 190,837 goats, 928 horses, 28,665 donkeys, 555 Mules, 5,418 camels, 185,652 poultry, and 2,580 different types of bee hives found on data recorded 2013 according Ethiopian Calendar in Melka Belo Woreda Livestock Development Office. In 2011 E.C. the recorded data indicates that the total population of the Woreda is 208,753 (106,781 males and 102,172 females). There are 26 kebeles (22 PAs and 4 kebeles) in the Woreda. Jaja type “C” veterinary clinic is selected for the study Farmers in the vicinity of Jaja town and PA around the district use a mixed crop which is in turn grossly divided into the lowland, midland, and highland parts and livestock farming system. Moreover, Jaja and its surroundings have variable and yet representative agroecologies of the country. These agroclimatic zones are inhabited by different plant and animal species.

The map of study areas is displayed below through Quantum Geographic Information Systems source geographical information system software by opening administrative boundaries of Ethiopian wereda and selecting my study area map of Melka Belo wereda as shown below (Fig. 1).

Small ruminants in the study area are kept under a traditional extensive system by families. Most families maintain one to four sheep and goats. During working time, both sex and age group of sheep and goats found in the selected five PAs that share common grazing in pasture fields were targeted for the study and the small ruminants come to the Jaja ‘type c’ veterinary clinic either for treatments, spraying, castration or other services included in the sample. Those animals with the age of less than one year were considered as young while those greater than or equal to one were considered as adults according to the classification of age groups by [34]. In addition, the categorized age groups depend on the size of feces that were small as young and medium and large as adults according to [35]. The body condition score was determined according to [36] and were grouped as poor, medium, and good. Likewise, the body condition score was measured by external symptoms; such as rib count was used for measurements: poor: when seven ribs were counted, medium: when three ribs were counted, and good: when no ribs were visible during inspection according to [35].

A simple random sampling system was conducted to collect the fecal sample from individual study animals directly from the rectum or freshly voided feces from the grounds. Since there was no record of previous prevalence in the study area, the sample size was determined by taking 50% expected prevalence using the formula described by [37]. Accordingly, a sample size of 384 was considered for the study.

where

N=required sample size;

P_exp=expected prevalence;

D=desired absolute precision; and

1.96=z-value for 95% confidence interval.

A cross-sectional study was carried out from May 2023 to August 2023 to determine the prevalence and to identify gastrointestinal tract parasites from fecal samples collected from goats and sheep in and around Jaja town and to identify the parasitic fauna circulating in the study area. All demographic data (e.g., owner’s name and address, species, age, sex, nutritional status, body condition, clinical sign, and laboratory methods) were collected through a data collection formats. Moreover, the individual sheep and goats were taken as a sampling unit that came into Jaja veterinary clinic from different PAs around Jaja towns in this investigation.

In the present study, a total of 384 small ruminants (322 goats and 62 sheep) were examined for the prevalence of Gastrointestinal tract parasites, then the mixed infection of Gastrointestinal tract parasites drawn out during the coprological examination. Based on the coprological examination there was an overall prevalence of 81.51% (313/384) for gastrointestinal tract parasites in both goats and sheep shown as follows (Table 1).

In the study area the prevalence of Gastrointestinal tract parasites in male and female animals was 78.71% and 83.41% respectively. This shows that the gastrointestinal tract parasite infection was more prevailing in females than males. Statistically, there was no significant difference (p > 0.05) in the prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites between male and female animals (Fig. 2).

In the study area prevalence of Gastrointestinal tract parasites in young and adult small ruminants was 78.83% and 83% respectively. This shows that the gastrointestinal tract parasite infection was more prevailing in adults than young animals. Statistically, there was no significant difference (p > 0.05) in the prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites between young and adult animals (Fig. 3).

The present study was focused on the epidemiology of Gastrointestinal tract parasites of goats and sheep in Ethiopia, Oromia regional state, East Hararghe Zone, Melka Belo Woreda, Jaja Town. The result of the study revealed an overall prevalence rate of (81.51%). The coprological examination in the present study, revealed the small ruminants were infested with single species, double species, and triple species of parasites. The overall prevalence of Gastrointestinal tract parasites (helminths and protozoa), the prevalence of 85.5% was recorded in sheep and similarly 80.8% was recorded in goats. The present study discovered overall prevalence of Gastrointestinal tract parasites in small ruminants in selected study area is 81.51%. This was fairly in agreement with the report of [24], who reported 79.68% of Gastro-intestinal Tract Nematodes of Small Ruminants, Prevalence and Their Identification in and Around Alage, Southern Ethiopia and the report of [38], who reported 60%–80% of Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia and relatively in agreement with report of [39], who reported 77.8% of prevalence of small ruminant gastrointestinal parasites infections and associated risk factors in selected districts of Bale zone, southeastern Ethiopia.

N=notice numbers of animals.

The prevalence of Gastrointestinal tract parasites in the study area was lower compared to the finding of (95.6% in sheep and 100% in goats) [40]; (88.67% in both species) [13]; (87.2% in both species) [41], (91.9% in both species) [42] and (87.8% in both species) [43] and higher than the results of the other study in sheep and goats (58.9% in both species) [35]; (53.9 in both species) [19]; (67.7% in both species) [44] in Eastern Ethiopia, (49.2% in both species) [45] in Western Ethiopia, (48.21% in both species) [46] in Northern Ethiopia, (47.67% in both species) [22] in Northwest Ethiopia, (74.41% in both species) [25]; (63.6% in both species) [21] and (51.3% in both species) [26] in Southern Ethiopia. This difference in prevalence in different ecological region could be further explained by the existence of favorable climatic conditions [47] climatic conditions, particularly rainfall, are frequently associated with differences in the prevalence of Gastrointestinal tract-parasitic infections because free-living infective stages (eggs, larvae, cysts, and oocysts) survive longer in moist conditions [48] that support prolonged survival of infective larvae stage. There exists a direct relationship between moisture and the prevalence of parasitosis [3] while desiccation suppresses the development and growth of parasites [22] thereby reducing the infection rate. Additionally, the variation of altitude makes to get different genera of parasite eggs, host factors that determine the susceptibly to Gastrointestinal tract parasites, parasitic factors that give different prepatent periods to Gastrointestinal tract parasites for continuation of life cycle could also be other factors including sanitation safety for animals, sample size variation between species and PA targeted for study population and using manure of small ruminants as compost for vegetation growths exposed the animals for the reinfection of parasitic diseases from larval stage or oocyts.

In The present study, the prevalence of Gastrointestinal tract parasites was somewhat higher (85.5%) in sheep than in goats (80.75%). But there was no significant difference (p > 0.05) in the prevalence between the two animal species. This finding was in the same line with other works of [35] in Eastern Ethiopia, [49] in Southwest Ethiopia, [44] in Southeastern Ethiopia, [13] in Eastern Ethiopia, [12,50] in Northwest Ethiopia, [46] in Northern Ethiopia, [51] in Southern Ethiopia, [41] in Western Ethiopia, and elsewhere in the world [28] in Nigeria, [52] in Tumkur, [53] in Jammu province, [54] in western Punjab, India that higher prevalence was observed in sheep than goats. The present finding disagrees with other studies by [27] in East Shoa Zone of Oromia, Ethiopia indicating that Gastrointestinal tract parasites affect sheep more than goat species significantly.

A higher prevalence of Gastrointestinal tract parasitic infections in sheep as compared to goats was probably due to their grazing behavior. Sheep graze very close to the ground so the risk of ingestion of parasitic ova is comparatively higher than the goats, as they are browsers [13,44,52,54]. In the present study, there is an imbalance between the sample size in sheep and goats, but lowering the sample size of sheep by four hands from the goats not means sheep have more harbor for Gastrointestinal tract parasites than goats rather than the population of sheep in midland and lowland very small when compare to highland agroecology. Sheep species browse more closely to the ground and does not feed from different plant materials like goat species these means the immunity to defend various infections lowered in degree than goat species.

In the present study,, the prevalence of the parasites was found higher in female animals than male animals 83.41% and 78.71%, respectively. But there was no significant difference (p > 0.05) in the prevalence between the two animal species. This finding agreed with other studies by [35] in Eastern Ethiopia, [27] in East Shoa Zone of Oromia, Ethiopia, [44] in South Eastern Ethiopia, [5,12,22,50] in Northwest Ethiopia, [24] in Southern Ethiopia. The present finding disagrees with other studies by [55] in Northwest, Ethiopia indicating that Gastrointestinal tract parasites affect both sexes significantly. This higher prevalence might be due to male animals being sold in large numbers than females and more samples were collected from the female and female animals’ immunity may be lowered than male animals during lactation and pregnancy. In addition, male animals are kept indoors for the fattening purpose to fulfill the households and family need, and then the rest can be freed to communal grazing area with females for breeding continuation to compensate the generation and the female animals of the present study area mostly pluriparous during gestation period that lower the immunity of the mother prepared for parasitic infection more than male.

In the present study, higher prevalence was observed in adult animal than young animal and there was no statically significant (P > 0.05) between age groups. The prevalence of Gastrointestinal tract parasites in the study area was 83% and 78.83% for adult and young animals, respectively, and this result was similar to other finding that reported higher prevalence in adult animals than young animals such as from Ethiopia, Gambia, Semi-arid part of Kenya and Bangladesh indicated that Gastrointestinal tract helminths affect both ages insignificantly [43,56–58]. The present finding disagrees with most literature ([27] in East Shoa Zone of Oromia, Ethiopia, [46] in Northern Ethiopia, [59] in South Eastern Ethiopia, [12,50] in Northwest Ethiopia, [44] in Southeastern Ethiopia.) that young sheep and goats are more susceptible to parasite infection than adult small ruminants. These results occurred due to adult animals in the area released for browsing green vegetation to feed from the hill by all householder that were exposed to parasitic infection from positive animals manure in the fields that aids the development of green vegetation in rainy season and ingested parasite before they reached infective stages and young animals are susceptible due to immunological immaturity, immunological unreactive and at nightfall tie up with adults come back from the fields that expose for cross contamination. Hence, in this study, we inform the absence of a significant difference in parasite infection between young and adult animals might be due to the small number of young animals kept by the householder as they are interested to sell young animals since the community used small ruminant especially female ones for breeding purpose due to pluriparous production.

The present study showed that a higher prevalence of Gastrointestinal tract parasite infection was observed in poor body condition animals as compared to medium and good body condition animals and there was statistically significant (P < 0.05) between body condition. The prevalence of Gastrointestinal tract parasites in these studies in relation to body conditions 92.1%, 81.4% and 75.5% in poor, medium and good body condition, respectively. This finding is similar to other studies which is [35] in Eastern Ethiopia, [26] in Southern Ethiopia, [55] in Northwest, Ethiopia, [59] in South Eastern Ethiopia, [5,12,50] in Northwest Ethiopia, [46] in Northern Ethiopia and elsewhere in the world is [52] in Tumkur. The present finding disagrees with other studies by [60] in South West Ethiopia indicating that Gastrointestinal tract parasites affect body conditions insignificantly. The higher prevalence in poor body conditions might be caused by malnutrition, other concurrent diseases or current parasitic infection that lead to lower the immune status of the animal [46] and the presence of adult parasite on the side of the hosts that compete for sharing of feed for continuation of life cycle these lead the disorder normal function and damage of the host organs. A study conducted by Radostits et al. [61] and Odoi et al. [62] indicated that animals with poor condition are highly susceptible to infection and may be clinically affected by worm burdens too small to harm an otherwise well-fed healthy animal. According to Knox et al. [63] revealed that a well-fed animal was not in trouble with worms, and usually a poor diet resulted in more Gastrointestinal tract parasite infections. In poor body conditions in the present study there was mixed parasitic infection by different genera or a class of Gastrointestinal tract parasites that lowered body defense mechanism through immune-compromise by various clinical signs such as weakness, depression, unable to stand, turning head into flank and grunting sounds manifested.

The present study revealed that Jaja town and PA around the study area shows no statically significant (p > 0.05) with the prevalence of Gastrointestinal tract parasites. The absence of association between Jaja town and PA around the study area and the prevalence of the Gastrointestinal tract parasites, but agroecology of study areas the most impact inducer due to difference in climate and weather condition, rainy season, altitude variation, farming system, agroecology production, animals movement due to owner of animals house and cultivation land was different in local areas and management system of the study areas.

According to Hansen and Perry [64] the development of larvae in the environment depends up on warm temperature and adequate moisture. In most tropical and sub-tropical countries, temperatures are permanently favorable for larval development in the environment. Exceptions to this are the highland and mountainous regions throughout the world, where temperatures may fall below those favorable for development. The ideal temperature for larval development of many species in the microclimate of the tuft of grass or vegetation is between 22°C and 26°C. Some parasite species will continue to develop at temperatures as low as 5°C but at a much slower rate. The infection of sheep and goats with paramphistomes is very common. These parasites may survive for years, so there is a virtually constant source of infection for successive generations of snails. Infected snails may also survive in mud for months. Schistosomiasis is closely associated with large permanent water bodies such as ponds, lakes, and marshy pastures. A key determinant in the epidemiology of this infection is the relative abundance of the intermediate hosts and their ability to develop and survive in the environment.

The current study has shown the presence of mixed infection characterized by the presence of two or more Gastrointestinal tract parasite genera both in both species and this is in agreement with the findings of other researchers in the country [3,40,42,65,66]. These polyparasitism has been suggested to be an important cause of morbidity and loss of production in sheep and goats [34]. Moreover, the presence of interaction and compromization of the immune system of the host by polyparasitism has been described to increase their susceptibility to other diseases or parasites [67]. Hence, mixed infection is an important problem of goats species in the current study area due to goats browse from different vegetation sources and does not staying in one place like sheep species and other possible factors could be the number of eggs laying by female parasites, adult parasites present in animals host, equally form favorable condition in environmental soil for developments of different genera of parasites and evenly distribution of parasites eggs in the feces of animals.

Finally, the present study revealed the prevalence of Gastrointestinal tract parasites in small ruminants under genera level identification generally through qualitative laboratory technique rather than specifically to measure parasitic infection burden degree into low, medium, and severe and species level detection and identification through quantitative laboratory technique to detect the burden of single or mixed massive parasitic infection and lack identification of Gastrointestinal tract parasites species level by fecal culture under standard guideline to mention by species name after developing into larvae depending on the morphology features and physiological structures. The study does not include all seasonal occurrence of the years to determine in which season Gastrointestinal tract parasites more abundant and less abundant were other shortcoming in these literature findings. The clinical status of the animal during sample collection records does not include like other risk factors to determine the significance or insignificance with the prevalence of Gastrointestinal tract parasites in the study areas.

According to world season variation into North of the Equator and South of the Equator and our country Ethiopia categorized under North of the Equator. In the present study, the summer season of our country changed into the winter season due to high rainy that causes for development of green vegetation that facilitates for activation of the dormant larvae of Gastrointestinal tract parasites in waste products of the animals or environmental soils. Minerals embraced in the present study environmental soil creates for dwelling many parasitic infection, but the soil does not tested for their content.

In general, the overall prevalence of gastrointestinal tract parasites in the study area indicates gastrointestinal tract parasites the most impairments of small ruminants. The present study showed there were not a considerable relation between species of animals, sex of animals, and age groups. Statistically significant differences were recorded between body conditions, address, and the prevalence of Gastrointestinal tract parasite infection. The majority of small ruminants were infected with one, two, or three genera of the same or different Gastrointestinal tract parasites. In future, the quantitative laboratory method, sample size balancing between species, present season of our country summer season changed into the winter season that raised the prevalence, but next all seasons must be included, from observation results concluded mostly into genera generally not determined specifically and fecal culture for species identification to know Gastrointestinal tract parasites circulating the study areas should be considered. The environmental soil of study areas must be tested to determine the risk factors that aggravated and facilitated mixed Gastrointestinal tract parasites egg that create favorable conditions to reach the infective stage. On the other side, the clinical signs must be a record for all animals to know the presence or absence of association with the results of data collected for identification of mixed Gastrointestinal tract parasites infected small ruminants that show the same clinical signs shows of micro-organism infected small ruminants. To know the number of worms postmortem examination or abattoir inspection inside of Gastrointestinal tract organs must be needed in case these literature are not considered. For prevention and control of Gastrointestinal tract parasites impacts on small ruminant health and economics of the country community awareness through training at least quarterly by veterinarians or para-veterinarians professionals.

Based on the above conclusion, the following recommendations are forwarded to efficiently and properly work upon the issue of Gastrointestinal tract parasites.